Chapter 1

Everyday examples of cognition: perception, attention, pattern recognition, memory, recognition, recall, reasoning, problem solving, decision-making, language, etc.
Philosophical roots of cognitive psychology:
Empiricism - Locke (tabula rasa), associationism, principle of contiguity & importance of experience.
Rationalism - Kant (categories of thought), nativism, & active mental processes.
Early Experimental Psychology:
Voluntarism - Wundt 1st experimental psychology lab in 1879 at University of Leipzig, Germany;
Wundt used basic experimental psychophysical techniques.
Structuralism - Titchener searched for a mental table of elements; his primary research tool was introspection.
Functionalism - James wrote Principles of Psychology (1st psychology textbook); influenced by evolutionary
theory and the purpose of behavior; more broad view than Structuralism - studied abnormality,
applications, animals, etc.
Behaviorism - classical conditioning (Pavlov), instrumental conditioning (Thorndike), operant
conditioning (Skinner), & Tolman (purposive behaviorism; cognitive maps; learning without
reinforcement).
Gestalt Psychology - Law of Prägnanz & principles of perceptual grouping; the whole is greater than the sum
of the parts.
Genetic Epistemology - Piaget & cognitive development; children in different stages of cognitive development
actually think differently (i.e., they have different cognitive structures).
Individual Differences - evolutionary theory; Galton and intelligence.
The "Cognitive Revolution" influenced by a number of trends:
Human-factors engineering (the person-machine system; ergonomics)
Communication systems theory/communications engineering (limited-capacity processors)
Linguistics (Chomsky & the language acquisition device - LAD)
Localization of function (neurology)
Computer as metaphor for the human mind (artificial intelligence)
Trends in Cognitive Psychology: cognitive science (interdisciplinary field) & cognitive neuropsychology (often
study brain damaged people & their cognitive deficits)
Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
Ecological validity/external validity versus experimental control/internal validity.
Experimental Designs: between-subjects versus within-subjects.
Paradigms of Cognitive Psychology
Information-processing approach - tends to use the computer metaphor & sequential stages of cognitive
processing; know the information-processing model on page 29 of textbook.
Connectionist approach (neural networks) - emphasizes parallel processing in networks of nodes
(perhaps similar to how actual neurons work); know connectionist model on page 31 of textbook.
Evolutionary approach - emphasizes the function of cognitive abilities in survival & reproduction; examples
include mating strategies and suspicion/jealousy.
Ecological approach - emphasizes natural contexts/settings in which cognitive activities occur.

Chapter 2

4 reasons why cognitive psychologists should be interested in perception (from lecture): (1) perceptions are one of the primary reasons/causes of perceptions, (2) cognitive processes can influence perceptions, (3) knowledge of perception can help an understanding of memory, (4) there is no internal cognitive reality without input from stimuli in the world.
What is the distinction between sensation & perception?
Distal stimulus, proximal stimulus, percept & pattern recognition.
Gestalt approaches to perception:
Form perception (figure/ground distinction) - much of perception is automatic (without conscious awareness).
Subjective/illusory contours
Law of Prägnanz - overarching Gestalt law for perceptual organization.
Gestalt Principles of perceptual organization
Principle of proximity/nearness
Principle of similarity
Principle of good continuation
Principle of closure
Principle of common fate
Principle of inclusiveness
Problems with Gestalt approach: describes but does not explain underlying cognitive processes, Law of Prägnanz can be circular (no clear definition of "simple")
Bottom-up (data-driven) theories of perception and pattern recognition:
Template Matching - templates must match perfectly, many machines/computers work this way. Problems
with template matching: impossibly large number of templates would have to be stored in memory (ex.
"grandmother cell"), doesn't explain how we recognize new objects or how we form new templates,
doesn't explain how we perceive different stimuli as being the same thing (A, a, A, etc.).
Featural Analysis - first subpatterns or features are detected, then these features are combined into larger
objects (fits some neurophysiological evidence - Hubel &Wiesel's simple cells), is also consistent with
language being broken down into words and letters. However, what exactly is a feature? 2 feature
approaches:
(1) Recognition by Components Theory - geons (geometric icons; three-dimensional features); what
research evidence supports RBC theory?
(2) Pandemonium Model - features (lines, angles, curves) used to recognize letters; 3 levels or stages
of processing in this model: feature demons, cognitive demons, & decision demons; the
different "demons" may represent nodes or neurons with louder "shouting" representing a
stronger neural connection between the demons.
Problems with featural analysis theories: no good/clear definition of what can be a feature; if
different kinds of features for different kinds of objects, then a huge number of features to store
in memory (and how could we quickly search all those features and quickly recognize objects);
if different features for different kinds of objects, then how do we know which features to search
for the different kinds of objects?
Prototype Matching - the best or ideal example of something; incoming sensory information does not have to
perfectly match the prototype in order for recognition to take place. What is the experimental evidence
that supports the existence of prototypes (Posner & Keele, 1968, & Cabeza et al., 1999)? Two theories
concerning prototypes:
(1) central tendency model - prototypes are formed using the average (arithmetic mean) of a
set of examples.
(2) attribute frequency model - prototypes are formed using the mode (most frequently
experienced) attributes from examples that one experiences.
Top-down (theory-driven or conceptually-driven) theories of perception & pattern recognition:
Contextual & expectation effects (examples on pages 62-63 of textbook)
Marr's model of perception with 3 levels/kinds of representations (called sketches):
· primal sketch (two-dimensional image) - detection of boundaries, relative brightness, etc.
· 2 ½-D sketch (two-and-a-half dimensional) - uses/adds more depth cues (like shading, texture,
etc.) to identify where objects are in relation to the observer.
· 3-D sketch (full three-dimensional image) - this involves top-down processes, the information
from previous stages is combined with prior knowledge & expectations to form
final/complete perception.
The first two sketches (primal & 2 ½-D) involve bottom-up processes, whereas the third sketch (3-D)
involves top-down processes.
Perceptual Learning - changes in perception that occur as a function of practice or experience; experts
perceptions of stimuli are different from the perceptions of novices; Gibson & Gibson (1955)
demonstration of this phenomenon (figure 2-20, page 65).
Change Blindness - inability to detect changes to an object or scene; studies of change blindness (pp. 67-69).
Why do people fail to notice changes? Visual perceptions may be mainly automatic processes that
represent the general meaning (i.e., gist) of what is happening. In other words, the focus is on the
meaning (top-down process) rather than with the specific details (bottom-up process). An implication is
that our visual percepts are not precise copies of the actual visual world.
Practiced Perceivers (i.e., experts)
Word superiority effect (word advantage) - the phenomenon that single letters are more quickly
identified in the context of words (than when alone or when placed into a pattern with other
random letters).
McClelland & Rumelhart's (1981) connectionist model of letter perception - can explain the word
superiority effect through the concept of spreading activation; the neural activation from the
seeing the word spreads from that word node down to the letter nodes, priming a quicker
reaction to the letters that are in that word.
Neuropsychological Study of Word Perception: researchers found that different areas of the cortex were activated
when participants were viewing word & pseudowords versus random letter strings & false fonts. There was
more neural activity in the left cortex (the left hemisphere) for the words & pseudowords, and also more
activation outside of the primary visual cortex (outside the occipital lobe) for the words & pseudowords
(perhaps indicating some semantic processing).
Direct Perception (previous theories in this chapter can be thought of as constructivist approaches to perception, however, direct perception views perception differently):
Direct perception - Information in the world is "picked up on" by the cognitive processor without much
construction of internal representations or inferences. The emphasis is on direct acquisition of
information from the environmental stimuli.
Optic flow
Affordances - the purposes of objects, which dictate the acts & behaviors that are appropriate in
response to these stimuli.
Visual Agnosias - impairments in the ability to interpret visual information.
Apperceptive agnosia, associative agnosia & prosopagnosia.