Chapter 14 - Who's On the Test
Gestalt psychology - saw the brain/mind as being active (rather than passive as seen by the behaviorists); studied the brain/mind using the top-down approach (studied and focused on what the brain/mind brought to perception, learning, education, etc.); Molecular approaches vs. molar approaches; Phenomenology; Field theory; Psychophysical isomorphism.
Wertheimer - article on the phi phenomenon in 1912 (formal beginning of Gestalt psychology); productive thinking; intrinsic vs. extrinsic reinforcement; intrinsic reinforcement is the best motivating factor for learning.
Koffka - distinguished between the geographical environment (the actual physical environment as it is objectively) and the behavioral environment (an individual's interpretation/perception of the geographical environment); it is the behavioral environment that influence an individual's behavior.
Köhler - studied insightful learning in chimpanzees and chickens on the Canary islands during W.W. I; cognitive trial-and-error; a problem exists on one of two levels - solved or unsolved; there is a presolution period when the problem is unsolved until insight is obtained and the problem is solved; transposition.
Perceptual constancy
Figure-ground relationship
Principles of perceptual organization: Law of Prägnanz (larger overall principle that individuals will perceive the most simple configuration possible), principle of proximity, principle of similarity, principle of continuity (good continuation), principle of inclusiveness, and principle of closure.
Lewin - life space; psychological facts; principle of contemporaneity; 1st to experimentally investigate conflict; 3 kinds of conflicts (approach-approach; avoidance-avoidance; & approach-avoidance); extended Gestalt principles to groups (group dynamics).
Zeigarnik - studied with Lewin; became the "mother" of clinical psychology in the Soviet Union; she experimentally studied an observation made by Lewin concerning a waiter's memory - this phenomenon became known as the Zeigarnik effect (the tendency to remember uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks).

Chapter 15 - Who's On the Test
Mental illness/abnormality is always defined in terms of the norms for a particular culture, society, or community.
General signs of mental illness - harmful behavior (to self or others), unrealistic thoughts/perceptions, inappropriate or exaggerated emotions, and unpredictable behavior.
Causes for mental illness: biological (medical model of illness, mental illness is the result of a malfunction of the body, disease, injury, tumor, stress, pollution, etc.), psychological (mental illness is the result of psychological events, such as, grief, guilt, anxiety, repression, etc.), & supernatural (punishment from supernatural beings, spirit possession, etc.).
Treatment influenced by presumed cause: biological (medicine, electroconvulsive shock, & psychosurgery), psychological (psychotherapy), and supernatural (sympathetic magic - homeopathic magic and contagious magic, prayer, trephination, etc.).
Psychotherapy - common themes in all psychotherapies: a sufferer, a helper, and a systemized ritual through which the helper goes about helping the sufferer.
Lunatic asylums - the "insane" were warehoused in these large institutions where they were chained to the walls, beaten, subjected to bloodletting, etc. The term bedlam comes from the St. Mary of Bethlehem Hospital in London, which was an asylum.
Pinel - as a physician he decided to serve the poor, because he thought most doctors were greedy and insensitive. One of his friends became mentally ill and Pinel discovered that there was no effective treatment for the mentally ill. So, Pinel set out to help the mentally ill. He was appointed the director of a mental institution (the Bicetre Asylum) where he introduced his novel treatments (unchaining the inmates, improved rations, no bloodletting, no harsh treatments, cleanliness/baths, occupational therapy, etc.). After 2 years with amazing results he was named director of La Salpetriere (the largest asylum in Europe with 8,000 insane women inmates).
Dix - led the campaign to improve the conditions in asylums in the U.S.; she traveled the U.S. advertising the terrible conditions and treatment of the mentally ill; this movement led to institutional reforms throughout the U.S.; improvements largely consisted of improvements in the physical environments of the institutions (larger institutions with more space for the inmates, less harsh treatment, more open air, and exercise, etc.).
Kraepelin - named and classified mental disorders and what he believed caused the disorders, however, he believed most disorders were "constitutional" (and so incurable); his work eventually led to the DSM-IV-TR today; however, his assumptions of the causes of mental illness stood in the way of the development of therapeutic progress.
Mesmer - animal magnetism (the planets influence humans through animal gravity; magnets could be used to treat disorders; the body has a magnetic force field, if it is evenly distributed then we are healthy, but if we are sick the magnetic field is not evenly balanced and needs to be changed back to a balance; first Mesmer used magnets to bring back the balance, then he found that he could redistribute a person's magnetic field just by touching the person himself (because he had a much stronger magnetic field than other people did); Mesmer moved from Vienna to Paris where he treated groups of people at a time; in 1784 Mesmerism was tested by a commission set up by the King of France (Benjamin Franklin was on the commission) and they found that there was no such phenomenon as animal magnetism.
Marquis de Puysegur - member of the Society of Harmony (followers/supporters of Mesmer); artificial somnambulism (later known as hypnosis); posthypnotic amnesia; posthypnotic suggestion.

Chapters 16 & 17 - Who's On the Test
Nothing from chapter 16 for Test #4.

Chapter 18 - Who's On the Test
Humanistic (third-force) psychology (according to Maslow behaviorism and psychoanalysis were the first two forces of psychology); overall humanistic psychologists emphasize subjective reality of the individual, the unique aspects of humans (free will, nondeterminism), phenomenology and the healthy/positive aspects of humans.
Existential & Humanistic psychologists are not scientists. Since they believe that human behavior is always freely chosen, there is no way to predict behavior. Consequently, their ideas and theories are difficult to test experimentally.
Heidegger - most of the terminology used in existential psychology can be traced back to him; used "Dasein" to refer to the person being inseparable from the world; we are "being-in-the-world," apart from the world we do not exist and apart from us the world does not exist; we are all intertwined with each other; authentic vs. inauthentic life; important & necessary part of living an authentic life is accepting the fact that some day you will die, then you can exercise your free will and grow (the process of becoming); hand in hand with free will is responsibility; thrownness.
May - introduced America to existential psychology; human dilemma; self-alienation (individual accepting values of society rather than deciding what one's own values will be); 4 functions of myths (provide sense of identity, provide sense of community, support moral values, & provide a way to deal with the mysteries of creation).
Kelly - constructive alternativism; construct systems; job of the therapists to help the client see things differently (different construct systems); at the beginning of therapy a client would write a self-characterization; fixed-role therapy (client would play a role for a period of time - to see the world and themselves differently).
Maslow - the individual most responsible for making humanistic psychology a formal branch of psychology; 6 basic tenets of humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs (moving from basic physical needs at the bottom up to the need for self-actualization at the top); self-actualization (reaching one's full human potential); self-actualization is a process more than a fixed state; self-actualizing individuals are rare because - (1) the higher the need on the hierarchy the easier it is to interfere with and block the need from being fulfilled and (2) the Jonah complex; deficiency-motivated and need-directed perception vs. being motivation and being perception.
Rogers - he discovered that the therapist should follow the lead of the client in therapy; his "nondirective" or "client-centered" therapy became the first major alternative to psychoanalysis; unconditional positive regard leads to a person becoming a fully functioning person (authentic person) who freely chooses his/her own behavior and is on the way to self-actualizing - these individuals were living according to their organismic valuing process.